Ferrari Enzo - one of the most unique car Ferrari. For the first time Enzo had been presented to the public September 26, 2002 at the exhibition «Mondial de l'Automobile 2002", held in Paris. Presented a novelty Luca di Mentezemolo, president of Ferrari-Maserati. As early as the name of the car, it becomes clear that this is not a common model of a Ferrari.
As is known, the names of the entire range of Ferrari cars contain a number which characterizes the technical data of the vehicle, namely the fuel volume (cm3), to the one-cylinder engine in working condition. The title provided no new items of numerical data.She was honored to be called the name of the company's founder Ferrari - Enzo Ferrari, which underlines its historical significance.
Circulation Ferrari Enzo small, only 399 copies. It is not widely available. To get a unique Enzo from Ferrari could only regular customers of this company and then on request. Ferrari Enzo has become a real showcase of technological advancements the company achieved since the first cars built Ferrari, a body which were made by hand by squeezing aluminum sheets with a hammer and mallet.
First, the chassis, weighing only 92 kg. This low weight at the highest durability has been achieved through the use of a rather unusual materials, namely, high-tech plastics with carbon fiber reinforcement, plus an automated computer-aided design. Mounted on the chassis of the cellular aluminum body panels.
Secondly, the engine. Traditionally for the Ferrari Enzo is set in a V12 engine known as the F140 engine with a working volume of 5,998 cm3 capacity of 660 liters / force, torque 657 Nm. Like the chassis, engine differs relatively low weight - only 225 kg, because made of aluminum die-cast. Each engine cylinder has four valves that are controlled by timing as the top four camshafts with variable valve. Multipoint fuel injection system controlled by a system Bosch Motronic ME7, which also supervises the work of spark plugs and fuel pump.
Despite the fact that the engine can reach 8,000 rpm, it fully complies with all environmental regulations on emission levels of pollutants in the atmosphere and noise level. The principle of gear borrowed from the Enzo of Formula-1, whose meaning is as follows: increases the transmission right-hand switch lowers - the left stalk. Due to the fact that a direct gear shift is a computer, the process of changing from one speed to another takes a quarter of a second. Electronics also controls the throttle and transmits information on tire pressure.
From the cars of Formula 1 Ferrari Enzo also got ceramic brake discs, carbon fiber-reinforced, which guarantee an adequate braking. Through the use of such discs, twelve and a half kilogram decreased unsprung weight. But in contrast to the weight, price have increased.
Now a set of brake pads cost 6000 dollars, the same amount of cost and each of the four brake disks. Ferrari Enzo has a top speed of 350 km / h, up to hundreds accelerates in 3.4 seconds. It is clear that such speeds require special stylistic making body, which had been found and verified in the course of full-scale aerodynamic testing.
The motto of the professional bodywork studio Pininfarina SpA when working on a Ferrari Enzo - «Form follows content". The result was an uncompromising design that combines the traditional Ferrari F40 and F50 and trends of the future. Naturally, the design of the body for a car with such speed, in the first place was aerodynamics, and only then the style.
Ferrari Enzo
All Ferrari FF and Lamborghini Aventador sold for the year ahead
All instances of the new supercar Ferrari FF and Lamborghini Aventador LP700-4, which are scheduled for release this year, already sold out on pre-orders before the cars in dealer showrooms. As reported by Business Week citing Ferari president Luca di Montezemolo, in 2011 the production line will come down 800 wheel-drive vehicles FF.The volume of production of the model Aventador not called.
The world premiere of Ferrari FF and Lamborghini Aventador LP700-4 took place at the Motor Show in Geneva, which opened to the public March 3. Both vehicles are equipped with dvenadtsatitsilindrovymi engines: the FF unit volume is 6.3 liters and power is 660 horsepower, and "Aventador" has a 6.5-liter engine that develops 700 horsepower.
Supercar Ferrari FF from zero to hundred kilometers per hour can be dispersed for 3,7 seconds and reach a top speed of 335 kilometers per hour. Acceleration to "hundreds" of Lamborghini Aventador LP700-4 takes 2.9 seconds, and its "maximum speed of 350 kilometers per hour.
Prices at the new Ferrari start at 260,000 euros, and the supercar Lamborghini - from 267 000 EUR 200.
Dodge history
Fiat History
Fiat has held a leading role in the automotive industry since its conception, which occurred at the dawn of the Italian industrialization era. From the moment it first appeared on the market, Fiat has been extensively developed and is recognized worldwide. Its logo is a great status symbol because of the superior cars the Company produces and the prestige of its history and tradition.Fiat 1899 to 1911
The charter of Societa Anonima Fabbrica Italiana Automobili Torino was signed on July 11, 1899. Giovanni Agnelli was on the Board of Directors. He was determined Fiat would be highly successful and had great strategic vision. He became Managing Director of Fiat in 1902.
Fiat's First Factory
In 1900, the first Fiat factory opened in Carso Dante. The workforce consisted of 150 people. The first year saw 24 cars roll off the assembly line, including the 3/12 hp. By 1904, a Fiat logo had been designed. It was oval with a blue background. When Italy hosted the first Car Tour of the country, nine Fiats crossed the finish line. By 1902, driver Vincenzo Lancia won the Sassi-Superga uphill race in a 24 hp Fiat. Giovanni Agnelli, President of Fiat, drove an 8 hp Fiat in the second Italian Car Tour and set a record in that race.
In 1908, Fiat opened its first factory in the US. The Company grew in leaps and bounds. Soon, factories were being built that produced specific parts. Fiat continued to grow at a swift rate. It wasn't long before trucks, trams, marine engines and commercial vehicles flanked the Fiat cars.
A Company Overhaul
Within a few years, Fiat overhauled production. The Company fitted its cars with electrical accumulators. Fiat patented the cardan transmission. Cars continued to win competitions and races, often setting new records.
Fiat 1912 to 1925
Under the leadership of Giacomo Malle Trucco, construction of the Lingotto factory began in 1916. It was the largest factory in Europe, with five floors. A futuristic test track was constructed on the roof. The factory was completed in 1922 and became the symbol of the automotive industry in Italy.
New Sectors
Fiat began to explore new sectors. It became active in electricity and public transportation lines, the railway and the steel industry. A subsidiary was established in Russia and Fiat Lubrificanti was founded. When WWI began, the Company produced almost entirely for the army.
Crisis and Recovery
When the war ended, a time of crisis hit Fiat. Recovery came quickly. By 1923, Fiat growth recommenced because of a very effective cost-cutting policy. At that time, Giovanni Agnelli was promoted to CEO of Fiat. Several new car models were released, including the four-seat 509. Fiat set a goal to create industrial mass production in order to decrease the cost of their cars. A holding company was established to enable purchasers to pay for Fiats through installments. Fiat grew internally between 1912 and 1925. They recognized their employees' needs and established a health care plan, sports clubs and specialized schools.
Fiat 1926 to 1938
While Mussolini's autarchic policy was alive and well in Italy, Fiat had to revamp its plans for an international presence. Concentration was turned to the domestic market. Fiat TopolinoCommercial vehicles and trucks had their technology changed considerably during the 1930s. During this era, Fiat's aviation and railway sectors continued to grow.
Two new Fiats were introduced between 1934 and 1936. The Topolino ( left) was the smallest utilitarian car in the world and continued to be produced until 1955. The Tariffa minima, better known as the Balilla, was very popular because gas mileage was so high.
The Mirafiori Plant
The Mirafiori Plant introduced advanced principals for industrial organization in 1937. The factory's focus was directed toward mass production.
Fiat 1939 to 1951
When WWII broke out, the production of cars was reduced drastically and the manufacture of commercial vehicles was rapidly increased. Giovanni Agnelli, the President of Fiat, died in 1945. Vittorio Valletta was given the position.
During WWII, many of Fiats factories were destroyed. Reconstruction began in 1948. Profits increased considerably and more employees were hired.
Research
Fiat committed to innovation and research after the war.
Two new cars, the 500 and Fiat 5001400 were introduced and mass production included the installation of heating and ventilation systems for the first time. Fiat continued its research on aircraft and marine engines. In 1951, the G830 jet aircraft was born; the first for Italy.
The 1400 diesel was introduced in 1953. By 1958, Fiat had grown in the production of both cars and farm machinery. Fiat established plants abroad and Mirafiori doubled its factories. Italy was in the middle of an economic boom and its automobile sector was the driving force behind it.
Below you can see a pretty funny video about Fiat 500
New Fiat Models
The Fiat 600 was introduced in 1955. It was a big utilitarian automobile with the engine mounted in the rear. The New 500 was released in 1957. By 1960, the Giardinetta version was produced - a precursor of the Station Wagon. This was also the time when the Fiat 1300, 1500 and 1800 were released.
A funny video showing a Fiat 1970s 124
Fiat 1965 to 1977
Fiat experienced a growth of production in the mid 1960s, as well as a growth in exports. Ration changed from one car for every 96 Italians to one in 28. Fiat tookFiat 127 Car of the Year advantage of the increase and established several factories in southern Italy. Trade union conflicts became the norm. By 1969, hours on strike were over 15,000,000.
The first new Fiat to be released during these years was the 850. In 1971, the 127 debuted and was a great success. It was the first Fiat to have front wheel drive. The 127 was named Car of the Year 1971.
Fiat Presidency
The grandson of founder Giovanni Agnelli, Gianni Agnelli, and his namesake, became President of Fiat in 1966. He ensured the Company followed a trend toward increased automation in the production process. This helped Fiat continue on the path of technological innovation while coping with the global oil crisis.
Fiat 1978 to 1990
Robogate, a flexible robotic system for assembling the bodywork on the Fiat was introduced to factories in 1978. Robogate kept Fiat on the path to automation of production, as well as innovation.
Between 1978 and 1990, Fiat setup numerous operations as independent companies. These included Fiat Auto, Fiat Avio, Fiat Engineering, Comau, Fiat Ferraviaria, Magnet Marelli and Teksid.
The Fiat Panda was styled by Guigiaro for Fiat in 1980. The Fiat Uno, which became the emblem of Fiat Auto's renewal was introduced in 1982. The Uno featured radical changes in its electronics and choice of the material used to build it. The 1000 Fire engine was introduced at this time.
In 1989, the Tipo was released. It had cutting edge technical solutions and marked a conquest for Fiat technology. It was named Car of the Year ( I am not sure why ....)
Fiat 1991 to 2003
In 1990, the Fiat Tempra made its debut. One year later, the 500 was released. The Fiat Punto and the Fiat Coupe rolled off the assembly line. The Punto was named Car of the Year in 1995.
Fiat made its debut into the sector of SUVs in 1994, with the introduction of the Fiat Ulysse. In 1995, the Bravo, Brava and the Barchetta were released. In 1996 and 1997, Fiat Palio came onto the market, along with the Fiat Marea and the Fiat Marea WE.
Administration Changes
In 1996, Cesare Romiti took the office of CEO at Fiat. Honorary President of the Fiat Group was Gianni Agnelli. The parent company moved to the Palazzina Fiat of Lingotto in 1997 from Corso Marconi. The Palazzina Fiat of Lingotto had been transformed into a Convention Complex and Trade Show.
Crisis
During the 1990s, Fiat was once again facing a crisis. In order to cope, the Company expanded further into the international market. It successfully attained a global presence and achieved more than 60% of sales outside of Italy.
To commemorate the 100 Year Anniversary of Fiat, the Company logo was revised from the oval to a round version.
In 1998, the Fiat Seicento was released. It was great for driving in the city. The Multipla was introduced the same year.
A New Century of Fiat
In 2000, the Fiat Diablo was introduced at the Paris Motor Show as both an informal car and a commercial vehicle. The Fiat Stilo was released in 2001, with numerous options and highly sophisticated technology, as well as a new design.
2002 saw the New Fiat Ulysse, the Fiat Multipla and the Fiat Stilo MW restyled. The new Punto was launched in 2003 with an innovative 1.3 Multijet 16v. That fall, the new Panda was released and was almost immediately named Car of the Year.
In January 2004, the Fiat Idea made its debut. It was the first MPV built by Fiat and the design was truly unique. The Idea was made taller to improve visibility and its interior was enhanced for flexibility.
Fiat Today
2007 will see the Fiat 500 have stiffer suspension, wider fenders and a 150 hp turbo 4-cylinder engine that will run from zero to 60 in eight seconds. Fiat continues on the path of innovation and superior technology into the 21st century.
By Mary M. Alward
Alfa Romeo history
Surprisely the history of Alfa Romeo starts in France. Carmanufacturer Alexandre Darracq putted up a factory in Portello near by Milan. In this factory cars with one or two cylinder engines were build from parts imported from Paris. This project was not that succesfull as Alexandre Darracq hoped for and in 1909 he sold his factory to the Italian Anonima Lombarda Fabbrica Automobili, shortly A.L.F.A.1910's
24 hp torpedo
24 hp torpedo (1910)
And here the history begins:
In 1915 Nicola Romeo, a very skilfull engineer and keen on autosport became the head of this fabbrica and the name of this firm became Alfa Romeo. The early four-cylinder engines were replaced by six- and eight-cylinder engines from Merosi and Jano. Later on engines with double overhead camshafts and a compressor were used. Examples are the 3-litre 8-cylinder Tipo B, the Bimotore with two 8-cylinder engines and a 4.5-litre V12.
1920's
20-30 es
20-30 es (1920)
Opera-singer Guiseppe Campari gave Alfa Romeo her first race-victory in 1920. He also won the french Grand Prix with Alfa’s first Grand Prix car, the P2 designed by Vittorio Jano.
1930's
8c
8c (1931)
Alfa’s P3 was the first monoposto (oneseater) Grand Prix-car. This car made its first appearance in 1932. The P3 was a very beautifull racecar and a born winner in which great drivers like Nuvolari scored many victories! The experience gathered with all races and triumphs were used into the development of production-models like f.e. the 1932 two-seats Spyder with 2300cc 8-cylinder engine. Thanx to Alfa we have the so much misused word ‘GT’. This concept ‘Gran Turismo’ was used for the 6-cylinder sportscar with long wheelbase (1750cc with compressor).
Financial problems in 1933 leaded to a take-over by the Italian state. Mussolini stimulated Alfa Romeo to stay racing and Enzo Ferrari (yes, the one and only!) became the head of the race-departement!
In the pre-war period Alfa Romeo was very succesfull and the foundation was laid for a total of 11 victories at the ledgendary Mille Miglia and 4 on Le Mans. The greatest victory in this period was gained in the 1935 German Grand Prix at the treacherous Nürburgring in which Nuvolari surpassed the supreme teams of Mercedes-Benz and Auto Union.
P 3
P 3 (1932)
In 1938 Enzo Ferrari instructed the highly gifted technician Gioacchino Colombo to design the Tipo 158 ‘Alfetta’ Grand Prix-car. After World War II this car showed up again and dominated the 1948 Grand Prix-season. With an updated version of the Tipo 158 Guiseppe Farina won the first world championchip in 1950. The only other Grand Prix-winner that season was Juan-Manuel Fangio also driving a Tipo 158 with an 8-cylinder 1.5litre engine (line-configuration) with two Roots-compressors. The Tipo 158 was described as ‘old but invincible’! In the following year Fangio could keep the Formula 1-title for Alfa Romeo, but it was clear that a new period was born. Although the pre-war race- and productioncars with single (SOHC) or double overheaded camshafts (DOHC)-engines designed by Jano and with bodies designed by Zagato and Touring were fantastic and exciting, people asked for cheaper and more reachable cars.
1940's
6c
6c (1947)
In 1947 already the 2.5 litre Freccia d’Oro (Golden Arrow) made its appearance. This car was a coupe with 5 seats and column mounted gearchange. In 1950 introduced Alfa her first 4-cylinder engine within 25 years: the 1900 Berlina.
1950's
1900
1900 (1950)
Coupé-versions called Super and Sprint followed soon, just as racing-version called Disco Volante (Flying Saucer) in 1952. This car with a subversive designed body by Touring in Milan did not reach production, but a more conventional race-version of the Disco Volante with a 3.0litre 6-cylinder-engine captured a second place in the Mille Miglia from 1953 and won the Grand Prix from Merano.
In 1954 Alfa Romeo introduced the Giulietta, a concept reachable for the big public. This car had a 1300cc 4-cylinder-engine with double overhead camshafts and perfectly combined performance with low costs! It was delivered as coupé with two doors or saloon with four doors. Later on versions followed tuned by Pininfarina, Zagato and Bertone.
In the period 1950 till 1955 the Italian carproduction grew very fast and of course the Giulietta joined responsibility. This car and its versions were responsible for the growth Alfa Romeo knew for 8 years! In 1962 a bigger Giulia was presented. This car was equipped with a 1570cc engine, a five-speed gearbox and disc brakes on all wheels. The 1900 Super was build till 1956 and replaced by the bigger and more luxurious 2000 in 1958 which in 1962 appeared with a 2.6litre engine. All these types were deliverable with different kind of bodies and engines and they became very popular because of their outstanding performance and handling.
1960's
Giulietta
Giulietta (1960)
The following year the build of a new factory was started in Arese near by Milan. This new factory replaced the one in Portello which had become too small. In the new factory the Tipo 33 racesportscar was developed. This Tipo 33 had a 2.0litre midplaced V-8 engine with DOHC. In 1971 the 3.0litre version of the 33 won the Targa Florio, the 1000km-race of Brands Hatch and the 6-hours race of Watkins Glen. And although the 33 was not without problems this car was the concept of perfect racesportcars as real Alfa Romeo traditions propagate!
At the international carexhibition of Montreal in 1967 the Montreal designed by Bertone made its first appearance. It made use of a 2.6litre V-8 engine developed from the 2.0litre version, with fuelinjection and a five-speed gearbox. This very beautifull 2+2-seater was a very fast sportscar with real racequalities. A topspeed of 220km/h was given! The Montreal was build on the same chassis as the Giulia 1600 coupé and had the same stiff rear axle and its disc brakes on all wheels. This car got a outstanding reputation and became the pride of Alfa Romeo. In the period 1970 till 1975 3925 Montreals were build.
In 1966 on the Salon the Genève Alfa Romeo introduced the 1600 Spider Duetto. This concept should be deliverable for almost 25 years!
Giulietta
Giulietta (1961)
In 1968 also the Giulia with an 1779cc engine made its appearance and at the same time the Italian government had persuaded Alfa Romeo to build a new factory near by Naples on behalf of employment in the poor south. This new factory was opened in 1971 at the same time with the presentation of the Alfasud (Alfa South). This totally new developed car had a 1186cc boxerengine with SOHC, a four-speed gearbox, frontwheeldrive and McPherson frontsuspension. The design of Hruschka an Giugiaro was highly praised because of the outstanding road-handling, thanks to wide track of the car and the great balanced rearaxle. Disc brakes on 4 wheels and a 63bph engine encouraged to a lively and sportive way of driving. Marketing technical speeking the Alfasud was a winner and with faster versions Alfa Romeo took care that this car was a unbeatable offer in the sportive and compact marketsection.
1970's
Berlina
Berlina (1970)
In 1971 the 1750cc engine was upgraded to 1962cc and one year later the name Alfetta was reborn. Now it was used for a saloon with a 1779cc 4-cylinder engine, a De Dion-rearaxle and a next to the diff placed 5-speed gearbox, just like the Grand Prix-car of 1951. Because of the concept engine frontside and the remaining components like gearbox and so on placed at the rearaxle the Alfetta had a very balanced and sportive handling when driving! Later on versions with the economical 1.6litre Giulia engine and 1.6, 1.8 and 2.0litre G.T.’s were added to the deliveryprogram.
1980's
Alfasud
Alfasud (1980)
In 1981 the Alfasud got a fifth door. In 1984 the Sud was replaced by the Alfa Romeo 33. This car also got boxerengines with 1351cc, 1490cc or 1712cc and was continuing a great succes.
In 1984 (but I can be wrong) Alfa introduced the Alfa 90 which replaced the Alfa 6. For this great car can be chosen from a 2.0litre 4-cylinder, a 2.0litre V-6, a 2.5litre V-6 or a 2.0litre VM-dieselengine.
In 1986 after more than 20 years the name ‘Giulietta’ disappeared with the arrival of the Alfa Romeo 75, called Milano in the USA. The name 75 was given because of the 75 year jubilee of Alfa Romeo. The chassis with the rearplaced gearbox and the De Dion rearaxle was kept and the 75 could be equipped with engines from 1779cc till 2959cc with an 190bph. From 1988 on a 1570cc engine is also delivered for the Alfa 75.
Alfasud
Alfasud (1980)
In 1987 Alfa Romeo is incorporated by the Fiatgroup and will represent the sportive part in the concern, where Lancia stands for luxurious cars and Fiat for the mainstream cars.
In 1988 Alfa Romeo introduced the 164 with frontwheeldrive as the topmodel. Also is re-introduced the twinspark-system on the 1962cc engine (for the 164 and 75). This double ignition was already used in 1923 by Alfa and later on the GTA and the GTAm had such a system. In 1990 the 164 Quadrifolglio was presented to the world with a 200bph 3.0litre V-6 engine and in 1994 this engine got a 24valve-head so the engine could give a maximum output of 230bph!
In 1989 during the Salon Genève Alfa Romeo amazed the world with the presentation of the SZ (Sport Zagato), also called ‘The Beast’. There should only be build a 1000 of this brutal car. The SZ was based on the 75 and had a 3.0litre tuned V-6 engine. In 1994 the RZ, a cabriolet based on the SZ is introduced.
1990's
Spider
Spider (1990)
In 1992 the Alfa Romeo 155 replaced the 75. The 155 has frontwheeldrive so at this moment only the Spider, designed by Pininfarina in 1966 has rearwheeldrive untill she will be replaced by a new Spider in 1993.
After a long time a new GTV is born in 1994, shown at Salon de Paris. The open version of this GTV is called Spider and replaces the former Spider.
In 1997 the 155 was replaced by the 156, a beautifull design from Alfa’s own Centro Stile (Walter de Silva) with retro styling characteristics. It became car of the year 1998 (of course!). End of 1999 a sportswagon of the Alfa 156 will be ready for production and here another tradition will be picked up where the production of the 33 Sportswagon was stopped.
33
33 (1990)
In 1998 is Alfa back in the upperclass of cars with the 166, also developed in Alfa’s Centro Stile by Walter de Silva. This car is the succesor of the 164 which production already was stopped in 1997. The 166 is a beautifull, slim lined and sportive limousine with great highpowered straight-four and V-6's engines.
2000's
156
156 (2000)
In 2000 Alfa Romeo amazed the world again with introducing the 156 Sportswagon, a very beautifull and very handy car. Here Alfa Romeo picks up a short history of creating sportwagons, like the 33 in the eighties. Coming a 3 years later than the original 156 this car should do it very well in the lease-concept which should be leased by 156-owners and new-comers ending their one lease contract and starting an other.
In novembre 2000 the 147 was introduced. The 147 is the successor of the 145 / 146-range. With this car Alfa Romeo will start in the upper-middle class, starting with prices in the Netherlands from 42.000 guilders on. More about the 147 in 'The history of the Alfa Romeo 145'.
Alfa Romeo news: There are plans to develop an off-road. An prototype is already there. If this car reaches production it will be sold somewhere the year 2001. Also news is (and almost not survivable!) that Alfa, part of the Fiat-group maybe will work together with GM in the future, aarrgghhh, why should Fiat share knowledge, parts and money with a company like this? Good news is that there are rumours again about re-introducing rear wheel drive! Nothing sure, but hopefully true!
Bentley History
In November of 1931 Rolls-Royce outfoxed Napier to take control of Bentley motors. W.O. Bentley remained on for a short time. In 1935 the first of the Derby Bentleys were produced by Rolls-Royce. These cars were based on a modified version of the six cylinder motor used in the smaller Rolls-Royce, the 20/25. Quick, light and quiet, the Derby Benltey cars became known as "Silent Sports Cars."In 1935, W.O. Bentley decided not to stay with the firm that bore his name. W.O. moved to Lagonda, where he became Chief Designer. In February of 1939, a Greek shipping magnate ordered a 4.25L car with an advanced aerodynamic body style. Named for its owner, the Embiricos Bentley set the stage for a new generation of Bentley cars.
The Bentley marque led the way when car production began at Crewe after World War Two. The 4.25-litre Mk VI, which later evolved into the R-Type, appeared in May 1946. Designed by Ivan Evernden, it was generally conservative, though such touches as integral headlamps were seen by some as a radical departure. The straight-six engine dated back to 1938.
Its Pressed Steel body was a new design that could be fitted and completed in-house. Bentley would no longer rely solely on specialist coachbuilders working mainly in aluminium over an ash frame, though Mulliner, Park Ward and others such as James Young still supplied bespoke bodies for about a fifth of its output.
Embiricos Bentley coupe, 1939
Its Pressed Steel body was a new design that could be fitted and completed in-house. Bentley would no longer rely solely on specialist coachbuilders working mainly in aluminium over an ash frame, though Mulliner, Park Ward and others such as James Young still supplied bespoke bodies for about a fifth of its output.
The Bentley marque led the way when car production began at Crewe after World War Two. The 4.25-litre Mk VI, which later evolved into the R-Type, appeared in May 1946. Designed by Ivan Evernden, it was generally conservative, though such touches as integral headlamps were seen by some as a radical departure. The straight-six engine dated back to 1938.
Production of Mark VI Bentleys at Crewe
R-Type Continental with coupe body by H. J. Mulliner
Despite fears about the quality of post-war steel, the heaviest gauge possible was used and the number of Mk VIs that survive testify to its durability. Capable of 90mph, it was the biggest-selling model in Bentley's history, with more than 5,200 customers by 1952.
The engine capacity was increased to 4.5 litres in 1951 and these big-bore Bentley Mk VIs are now collectors' items. In 1952 the stretched engine was used for the replacement R-Type, the first Bentley to offer automatic transmission as an option. At first seen as "new-fangled", the four-speed box actually made the car 1mph faster and quickly became the popular option.
Designed by John Blatchley, Chief Stylist until 1969, the R-Type was longer than the Mk VI and had restyled rear wings and boot to look sleeker and provide more luggage space. It also had the first automatic choke on a Bentley.
Mulliner contributed an exotic, lightweight, fastback body for the highly-tuned R-Type Continental model which, with a top speed of almost 120mph, became the fastest four-seater in the world. Evernden's aerodynamic design harked back to a pre-war Bentley Corniche design, and caused a sensation. It is one of the most admired cars ever built.
The Bentley post-war design prospered for ten years, but 1955 signalled the first new car to be both built and engineered at Crewe, the 100mph Bentley S1. Its softer styling made its more upright predecessors appear "of their day". This was the last Bentley to be powered by a six-cylinder engine, the 4.9-litre version used in later R-Type Continentals. The S1 was a foot longer than the R-Type, to give the occupants more space, and automatic transmission was now standard.
Chief Stylist Graham Hull's new four-door saloon with an advanced body style that paid subtle tribute to the Bentley S-type was launched at Le Mans in 1998. This was the Arnage.
It was followed by the exhilarating Arnage Red Label which, with its 6.75-litre V8 engine, delivers more power and torque than any other production saloon in the world
Nissan history
Jidosha-Seizo Kabushiki-Kaisha ("Automobile Manufacturing Co., Ltd." in English) was established on December 26, 1933, taking over all the operations for manufacturing Datsuns from the automobile division of Tobata Casting Co., Ltd., and its company name was changed to Nissan Motor Co., Ltd. on June 1, 1934. The founder was Yoshisuke Aikawa, the brilliant leader of the Nissan combine. He had grand plans to mass-produce 10,000 - 15,000 units per year, and was about to putting his plan into practice.The first small-size Datsun passenger car rolled off the assembly line at the Yokohama Plant in April 1935, and vehicle exports to Australia were also launched that same year. Datsun cars symbolized Japan's rapid advances in modern industrialization in those days, as evidenced by the contemporary slogan, "The Rising Sun as the flag and Datsun as the car of choice."
VTR: The production line for the Datsuns (small passenger sedans and pickup trucks) is shown at the Yokohama Plant in 1935. (819KB)
Nissan's history goes back to the Kwaishinsha Co., an automobile factory started by Masujiro Hashimoto in Tokyo's Azabu-Hiroo district in 1911. Hashimoto was a pioneer in Japan's automotive industry at its inception and throughout its initial years of struggle.
In 1914, a box-type small passenger car was completed based on his own design, and in the following year the car made its debut on the market under the name of Dat Car. It is a well-known story that the name Dat represents the first letters of the family names of Hashimoto's three principal backers: Kenjiro Den, Rokuro Aoyama and Meitaro Takeuchi.
Jitsuyo Jidosha Co., Ltd., another predecessor of Nissan, was established in Osaka in 1919 to manufacture Gorham-style three-wheeled vehicles, designed by the American engineer William R. Gorham. The company imported machine tools, components and materials from the U.S., and thus was said to be one of the most modern automobile factories.
Kwaishinsha Co. and Jitsuyo Jidohsa Co. merged in 1926 to form Dat Jidosha Seizo Co., which, in 1931, became affiliated with Tobata Casting, a company founded earlier by Aikawa. That would lead two years later to the establishment of Nissan Motor Co.
In 1936, Nissan purchased design plans and plant facilities from Graham-Paige Motors Corp. of the U.S. for the manufacture of passenger cars and trucks. As the signs of war grew stronger, however, production emphasis shifted from small-size Datsun passenger cars to military trucks. During the war, Nissan also manufactured engines for the army's planes and for motor torpedo boats.
VTR:The production line for Nissan heavy-duty trucks and buses is shown at the Yokohama Plant in 1937.(1.1MB)
Although the Yokohama Plant had escaped damage during the air raids, over one-half of the plant was requisitioned by the Occupation Forces for approximately ten years after the war. Nissan was also handicapped in the early postwar period by the fact that many leading auto dealerships, previously affiliated with the old Nissan network, switched to Toyota after the dissolution of Japan Motor Vehicle Distribution Co., Ltd., which had monopolized vehicle distribution during the war.
Nissan resumed production of Nissan trucks in 1945 and Datsun passenger cars in 1947. There was constant labor-management strife in those years, and Nissan suffered a prolonged 100-day strike in 1953. Serious reflection on that bitter experience gave birth to modern labor-management relations based on mutual trust.
In a move to recover from the technological vacuum of the wartime years, Nissan concluded a technical tie-up with Austin Motor Co., Ltd. of the U.K. in 1952, and rolled the first Austin off the line one year later. In 1958, one of the two Datsun 210 cars entered in the Australian Rally, one of the most grueling races in the world, and captured its class championship. Nissan was the first automaker in Japan to receive the annual Deming Prize for engineering excellence in 1960. And through this period, Nissan was steadily putting in place a strong organization to support the company's next stage of dramatic growth.
VTR: A triumphal parade is shown starting from Haneda, Tokyo, toward the Yoshiwara Plant in Shizuoka Prefecture in October 1958. (1.3MB)
The 1959 Bluebird and the 1960 Cedric captivated Japanese car buyers and quickened the pace of motorization in Japan. The Sunny that debuted in 1966 heralded the advent of the "my car" era in Japan, and was a major driving force behind the rapid growth of the small-car market.
In preparation for the liberalization of capital investment in Japan, Nissan brought on line two state-of-the-art manufacturing facilities, the Oppama Plant in 1962 and the Zama Plant in 1965. In 1966,Nissan merged with Prince Motor Co., Ltd., adding the renowned Skyline and Gloria models to its product lineup and incorporating an outstanding engineering staff that continued the excellent tradition of Nakajima and Tachikawa Aircraft Companies, previously manufacturers of distinguished aircraft engines.
The advance of motorization gave rise to increased traffic accidents and contributed to the problem of air pollution. Nissan developed its first Experimental Safety Vehicle (ESV) in 1971 and has adopted a vast array of safety technologies in its production vehicles over the years since then. To prevent air pollution, Japan enforced exhaust emission standards comparable to those mandated by the Muskie Bill (Clean Air Act) in the U.S. Although the standards appeared almost impossible to meet, they were successfully cleared through the use of the three-way catalytic converter system, the most promising technology available at that time. In that process, notable improvements were achieved in automotive electronics and materials engineering.
The two energy crises of the 1970s triggered a rapid increase in exports of small Japanese cars, known for their excellent fuel economy and quality. In fuel economy tests conducted by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency in 1973, the Sunny finished first and subsequently gained enormous popularity in the U.S. market under the advertising slogan of "Datsun saves."
American automakers at that time were behind in developing small cars, and their slumping sales led to a succession of plant closings and large-scale layoffs. The resultant social issues heightened the mood of protectionism and prompted calls for import quotas on Japanese cars and for Japanese companies to open local production plants in the U.S.
Over the years, Nissan has lived up to its reputation for excellence in engineering by playing a pioneering role in many fields of advanced technology. With the aim of improving fuel economy, Nissan has developed a variety of weight-reducing materials, such as high-tensile steel sheet for body panels, and has also created sophisticated engine management systems for controlling combustion. In addition, Nissan has also been a forerunner in developing and using CAD/CAM systems and industrial robots.
Nissan began early on to develop overseas manufacturing operations, starting with the initiation of knockdown production at Yulon Motor Co., Ltd. in Taiwan in 1959 and the establishment of Nissan Mexicana, S.A. de C.V. in 1961. Then, in the 1980s, Nissan established two strategic manufacturing bases overseas; Nissan Motor Manufacturing Corp., U.S.A. in 1980, and Nissan Motor Manufacturing (UK) Limited in 1984. Today, Nissan operates manufacturing and assembly plants in 17 countries around the world.
In addition to manufacturing, Nissan has also been proceeding with a program to localize R&D operations, including vehicle design and engineering, as well as business management functions at the highest level. This globalization program has now advanced to the stage where decision-making has been localized through the establishment of regional headquarters in North America and Europe. Nissan North America Inc. and Nissan Europe N.V. oversee the entire scope of Nissan's local operations in their respective regions, including product development, manufacturing, procurement, fund-raising and mutual complementation of parts between companies.
Looking at the domestic market, Nissan opened the Kyushu Plant in 1975, adding the new plant with the most advanced automation technology in 1992. Furthermore, in 1994 the Iwaki Plant became operational to manufacture new V6 engines. In the field of marketing, Nissan introduced the Be-1 in 1987 and the Cima in 1988, thereby creating new segments with a "Pike" car, or niche car, and an upper grade personal sedan.
VTR:The automated assembly line for engine components is shown at the Iwaki Plant in 1993. (1.2MB)
Nissan has been working vigorously to address global environmental issues that have caused increasing concern in recent years. The company's environmental efforts include the development of clean power sources for vehicles and wide-ranging activities to promote the recycling of natural resources. Since 1997, Nissan has released one new model after another fitted with fuel-efficient direct-injection gasoline engines and direct-injection diesel engines. Nissan has also been actively expanding application of the belt-driven HYPER CVT continuously variable transmission that delivers improved fuel economy. In November 1999, Nissan adopted <the Extroid CVT> on the Cedric/Gloria sedans, marking the world's first application of a CVT to rear-wheel-drive production models powered by a large-displacement engine. Moreover, Nissan released <the Tino Hybrid> and the two-seater<Hypermini electric vehicle> in the early part of 2000.
On March 27, 1999, Nissan and France's Renault SA signed an agreement concerning a comprehensive global alliance aimed at achieving profitable growth for both companies.
Nissan announced on October 18, 1999 the Nissan Revival Plan (NRP), a comprehensive restructuring plan designed to achieve lasting profitable growth on a global level. It accomplished the objectives the NRP by the end of fiscal year 2001, one year ahead of schedule, and posted all-time-high record operating profits. Under the NRP, steadfast efforts were made to enhance product appeal and competitiveness besides cutting purchasing costs and indebtedness. As a result, the all-new Altima won the North American Car of the Year Award in January 2002.
Since this past April, the company has been pushing ahead with "NISSAN 180," a new business plan aimed at achieving additional unit sales of one million vehicles globally in 3 years, among other objectives.
Henry Ford (1863-1947)
Automobile manufacturer Henry Ford was born July 30, 1863, on his family's farm in Dearborn, Michigan. From the time he was a young boy, Ford enjoyed tinkering with machines. Farm work and a job in a Detroit machine shop afforded him ample opportunities to experiment. He later worked as a part-time employee for the Westinghouse Engine Company. By 1896, Ford had constructed his first horseless carriage which he sold in order to finance work on an improved model. Ford incorporated the Ford Motor Company in 1903, proclaiming, "I will build a car for the great multitude." In October 1908, he did so, offering the Model T for $950. In the Model T's nineteen years of production, its price dipped as low as $280. Nearly 15,500,000 were sold in the United States alone. The Model T heralds the beginning of the Motor Age; the car evolved from luxury item for the well-to-do to essential transportation for the ordinary man.
Ford revolutionized manufacturing. By 1914, his Highland Park, Michigan plant, using innovative production techniques, could turn out a complete chassis every 93 minutes. This was a stunning improvement over the earlier production time of 728 minutes. Using a constantly-moving assembly line, subdivision of labor, and careful coordination of operations, Ford realized huge gains in productivity.
In 1914, Ford began paying his employees five dollars a day, nearly doubling the wages offered by other manufacturers. He cut the workday from nine to eight hours in order to convert the factory to a three-shift workday. Ford's mass-production techniques would eventually allow for the manufacture of a Model T every 24 seconds. His innovations made him an international celebrity.
Ford's affordable Model T irrevocably altered American society. As more Americans owned cars, urbanization patterns changed. The United States saw the growth of suburbia, the creation of a national highway system, and a population entranced with the possibility of going anywhere anytime. Ford witnessed many of these changes during his lifetime, all the while personally longing for the agrarian lifestyle of his youth. In the years prior to his death on April 7, 1947, Ford sponsored the restoration of an idyllic rural town called Greenfield Village.
Henry Ford Trivia
On January 12, 1900, the Detroit Automobile Company released its first commercial automobile - a delivery wagon - designed by Henry Ford. This was Ford's second car design - his first design was the quadricycle built in 1896.
On May 27, 1927, production ended for the Ford Model T - 15,007,033 units had been manufactured.
On January 13, 1942, Henry Ford patented a plastic-bodied automobile - a car 30 percent lighter than metal cars.
In 1932, Henry Ford introduced his last engineering triumph: his "en block", or one piece, V-8 engine.
The T in Model T
Henry Ford and his engineers used the first 19 letters of the alphabet to name their automobiles, although some of the cars were never sold to public.
The First Mass Producers of Cars - The Assembly Line
1891 Panhard-Levassor vehicle with front engine By the early 1900s, gasoline cars started to outsell all other types of motor vehicles. The market was growing for economical automobiles and the need for industrial production was pressing.
The first car manufacturers in the world were French: Panhard & Levassor (1889) and Peugeot (1891). By car manufacturer we mean builders of entire motor vehicles for sale and not just engine inventors who experimented with car design to test their engines - Daimler and Benz began as the latter before becoming full car manufacturers and made their early money by licensing their patents and selling their engines to car manufacturers.
Rene Panhard and Emile Levassor
Rene Panhard and Emile Levassor were partners in a woodworking machinery business, when they decided to become car manufacturers. They built their first car in 1890 using a Daimler engine. Edouard Sarazin, who held the license rights to the Daimler patent for France, commissioned the team. (Licensing a patent means that you pay a fee and then you have the right to build and use someone's invention for profit - in this case Sarazin had the right to build and sell Daimler engines in France.) The partners not only manufactured cars, they made improvements to the automotive body design.
Panhard-Levassor made vehicles with a pedal-operated clutch, a chain transmission leading to a change-speed gearbox, and a front radiator. Levassor was the first designer to move the engine to the front of the car and use a rear-wheel drive layout. This design was known as the Systeme Panhard and quickly became the standard for all cars because it gave a better balance and improved steering. Panhard and Levassor are also credited with the invention of the modern transmission - installed in their 1895 Panhard.
Panhard and Levassor also shared the licensing rights to Daimler motors with Armand Peugot. A Peugot car went on to win the first car race held in France, which gained Peugot publicity and boosted car sales. Ironically, the "Paris to Marseille" race of 1897 resulted in a fatal auto accident, killing Emile Levassor. (Learn more about Panhard and Levassor)
Early on, French manufacturers did not standardize car models - each car was different from the other. The first standardized car was the 1894, Benz Velo. One hundred and thirty four identical Velos were manufactured in 1895.
Charles and Frank Duryea
America's first gasoline-powered commercial car manufacturers were Charles and Frank Duryea. The brothers were bicycle makers who became interested in gasoline engines and automobiles and built their first motor vehicle in 1893, in Springfield, Massachusetts. By 1896, the Duryea Motor Wagon Company had sold thirteen models of the Duryea, an expensive limousine, which remained in production into the 1920s. (Learn more about Charles and Frank Duryea)
Ransome Eli Olds
The first automobile to be mass produced in the United States was the 1901, Curved Dash Oldsmobile, built by the American car manufacturer Ransome Eli Olds (1864-1950). Olds invented the basic concept of the assembly line and started the Detroit area automobile industry. He first began making steam and gasoline engines with his father, Pliny Fisk Olds, in Lansing, Michigan in 1885. Olds designed his first steam-powered car in 1887. In 1899, with a growing experience of gasoline engines, Olds moved to Detroit to start the Olds Motor Works, and produce low-priced cars. He produced 425 "Curved Dash Olds" in 1901, and was America's leading auto manufacturer from 1901 to 1904.
Henry Ford
American car manufacturer, Henry Ford (1863-1947) invented an improved assembly line and installed the first conveyor belt-based assembly line in his car factory in Ford's Highland Park, Michigan plant, around 1913-14. The assembly line reduced production costs for cars by reducing assembly time. Ford's famous Model T was assembled in ninety-three minutes. Ford made his first car, called the "Quadricycle," in June, 1896. However, success came after he formed the Ford Motor Company in 1903. This was the third car manufacturing company formed to produce the cars he designed. He introduced the Model T in 1908 and it was a success. After installing the moving assembly lines in his factory in 1913, Ford became the world's biggest car manufacturer. By 1927, 15 million Model Ts had been manufactured.
Another victory won by Henry Ford was patent battle with George B. Selden. Selden, who had never built an automobile, held a patent on a "road engine", on that basis Selden was paid royalties by all American car manufacturers. Ford overturned Selden's patent and opened the American car market for the building of inexpensive cars. (Learn more about Henry Ford)
History of the Internal Combustion Engine - The Heart of the Automobile
An internal combustion engine is any engine that uses the explosive combustion of fuel to push a piston within a cylinder - the piston's movement turns a crankshaft that then turns the car wheels via a chain or a drive shaft. The different types of fuel commonly used for car combustion engines are gasoline (or petrol), diesel, and kerosene.A brief outline of the history of the internal combustion engine includes the following highlights:
1680 - Dutch physicist, Christian Huygens designed (but never built) an internal combustion engine that was to be fueled with gunpowder.
1807 - Francois Isaac de Rivaz of Switzerland invented an internal combustion engine that used a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen for fuel. Rivaz designed a car for his engine - the first internal combustion powered automobile. However, his was a very unsuccessful design.
1824 - English engineer, Samuel Brown adapted an old Newcomen steam engine to burn gas, and he used it to briefly power a vehicle up Shooter's Hill in London.
1858 - Belgian-born engineer, Jean JosephÉtienne Lenoir invented and patented (1860) a double-acting, electric spark-ignition internal combustion engine fueled by coal gas. In 1863, Lenoir attached an improved engine (using petroleum and a primitive carburetor) to a three-wheeled wagon that managed to complete an historic fifty-mile road trip. (See image at top)
1862 - Alphonse Beau de Rochas, a French civil engineer, patented but did not build a four-stroke engine (French patent #52,593, January 16, 1862).
1864 - Austrian engineer, Siegfried Marcus*, built a one-cylinder engine with a crude carburetor, and attached his engine to a cart for a rocky 500-foot drive. Several years later, Marcus designed a vehicle that briefly ran at 10 mph that a few historians have considered as the forerunner of the modern automobile by being the world's first gasoline-powered vehicle (however, read conflicting notes below).
1873 - George Brayton, an American engineer, developed an unsuccessful two-stroke kerosene engine (it used two external pumping cylinders). However, it was considered the first safe and practical oil engine.
1866 - German engineers, Eugen Langen and Nikolaus August Otto improved on Lenoir's and de Rochas' designs and invented a more efficient gas engine.
1876 - Nikolaus August Otto invented and later patented a successful four-stroke engine, known as the "Otto cycle".
1876 - The first successful two-stroke engine was invented by Sir Dougald Clerk.
1883 - French engineer, Edouard Delamare-Debouteville, built a single-cylinder four-stroke engine that ran on stove gas. It is not certain if he did indeed build a car, however, Delamare-Debouteville's designs were very advanced for the time - ahead of both Daimler and Benz in some ways at least on paper.
1885 - Gottlieb Daimler invented what is often recognized as the prototype of the modern gas engine - with a vertical cylinder, and with gasoline injected through a carburetor (patented in 1887). Daimler first built a two-wheeled vehicle the "Reitwagen" (Riding Carriage) with this engine and a year later built the world's first four-wheeled motor vehicle.
1886 - On January 29, Karl Benz received the first patent (DRP No. 37435) for a gas-fueled car.
1889 - Daimler built an improved four-stroke engine with mushroom-shaped valves and two V-slant cylinders.
1890 - Wilhelm Maybach built the first four-cylinder, four-stroke engine.
Further Reading - The Mechanics of Internal Combustion Engines - What is a 2-stroke? 4-stroke?
Engine design and car design were integral activities, almost all of the engine designers mentioned above also designed cars, and a few went on to become major manufacturers of automobiles. All of these inventors and more made notable improvements in the evolution of the internal combustion vehicles.
The Importance of Nicolaus Otto
One of the most important landmarks in engine design comes from Nicolaus August Otto who in 1876 invented an effective gas motor engine. Otto built the first practical four-stroke internal combustion engine called the "Otto Cycle Engine," and as soon as he had completed his engine, he built it into a motorcycle. Otto's contributions were very historically significant, it was his four-stoke engine that was universally adopted for all liquid-fueled automobiles going forward. (Learn more about Nicolaus Otto)
The Importance of Karl Benz
In 1885, German mechanical engineer, Karl Benz designed and built the world's first practical automobile to be powered by an internal-combustion engine. On January 29, 1886, Benz received the first patent (DRP No. 37435) for a gas-fueled car. It was a three-wheeler; Benz built his first four-wheeled car in 1891. Benz & Cie., the company started by the inventor, became the world's largest manufacturer of automobiles by 1900. Benz was the first inventor to integrate an internal combustion engine with a chassis - designing both together. (Learn more about Karl Benz)
The Importance of Gottlieb Daimler
In 1885, Gottlieb Daimler (together with his design partner Wilhelm Maybach) took Otto's internal combustion engine a step further and patented what is generally recognized as the prototype of the modern gas engine. Daimler's connection to Otto was a direct one; Daimler worked as technical director of Deutz Gasmotorenfabrik, which Nikolaus Otto co-owned in 1872. There is some controversy as to who built the first motorcycle Otto or Daimler.
The 1885 Daimler-Maybach engine was small, lightweight, fast, used a gasoline-injected carburetor, and had a vertical cylinder. The size, speed, and efficiency of the engine allowed for a revolution in car design. On March 8, 1886, Daimler took a stagecoach and adapted it to hold his engine, thereby designing the world's first four-wheeled automobile. Daimler is considered the first inventor to have invented a practical internal-combustion engine.
In 1889, Daimler invented a V-slanted two cylinder, four-stroke engine with mushroom-shaped valves. Just like Otto's 1876 engine, Daimler's new engine set the basis for all car engines going forward. Also in 1889, Daimler and Maybach built their first automobile from the ground up, they did not adapt another purpose vehicle as they had always been done previously. The new Daimler automobile had a four-speed transmission and obtained speeds of 10 mph.
Daimler founded the Daimler Motoren-Gesellschaft in 1890 to manufacture his designs. Eleven years later, Wilhelm Maybach designed the Mercedes automobile. (Learn more about Gottlieb Daimler & Wilhelm Maybach)
*If Siegfried Marcus built his second car in 1875 and it was as claimed, it would have been the first vehicle powered by a four-cycle engine and the first to use gasoline as a fuel, the first having a carburetor for a gasoline engine and the first having a magneto ignition. However, the only existing evidence indicates that the vehicle was built circa 1888/89 - too late to be first.
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